Mcdonald’s: Serving Fast Food Essay

Ray Kroc opened the first McDonald’s restaurant in 1955. He offered a limited menu of high quality, moderately priced food served fast in spotless surroundings. McDonald’s QSC&V (Quality, Service, Cleanliness, and Value) was a hit. The chain expanded into every state in nation. By 1983, it had over 6000 restaurants in United States. In 1967, McDonald’s opened its first restaurant outside the United States, in Canada. By 1985 international sales represented about one-fifth of McDonald’s total revenue. Yet fast food had barely touched many cultures. While 90% of Japanese in Tokyo had never eaten McDonald’s Hamburger, in Europe, McDonald’s maintained a very small percentage of restaurant sales but command a large share of fast food market. It took the company 14 years of planning before it opened a restaurant in Moscow. But the planning paid off. People stand in line up to 2 hours for a Hamburger. After waiting for such a long time they had to pay $14. 40 (at the official rate) for a Big Mac and French Fries. Despite the high prices, McDonald’s restaurant in Moscow attracts more visitors on the average 27,000 daily the Lenin mausoleum (about 9000 people), which used to visit the place. The taste of American Fast Food is growing more rapidly in countries abroad than at home. McDonald’s international sales have been increasing by a large percentage every year. Every day more than 18 million people in over 40 countries eat at McDonald’s. Its traditional menu has been surprisingly successful. People with diverse dining habits have adopted burgers and fries wholeheartedly. Before McDonald’s introduced the Japanese to French Fries, potatoes were used in Japan only to make starch. The Germans thought Hamburgers were people from the city of Hamburg. Now, McDonald’s also serves chicken, sausages, and salads and sandwiches. The fast, family oriented service, the cleanliness and the value accounted for much of McDonald’s success. McDonald’s was one of the first restaurants in Europe to welcome families with children. Not only are children welcomed, but in many restaurants they are also entertained with crayons and papers, a play land or may be even Ronald McDonald’s who can speak twenty languages. McDonald’s golden arches promise the same basic menu and QSC&V in every restaurant. Its products, handling and cooking procedures, and kitchen layout are standardized and strictly controlled. McDonald’s revoked the first French franchise because the franchisee failed to meet its standards for fast service and cleanliness, even though their restaurants were highly profitable. This may have delayed its expansion in France. The restaurant is run by the local manager and crews. Owners and managers must attend the Hamburger University near Chicago to learn how to operate a McDonald’s restaurant and maintain QSC&V. The main campus library and modern electronic class room (which include simultaneous translation system) are the envy of many universities. When McDonalds’s opened in Moscow, a one page advertisement resulted in 30,000 inquiries about the job; 4000 people were invited, and some 300 were hired. The pay is about 50 % higher than the average soviet salary. McDonald’s ensures consistent products by controlling every stage of distribution. Regional distribution centers purchase products and distribute them to individual restaurants. The centers will buy from local suppliers if the suppliers meet the detailed specifications. McDonald’s has had to make some concessions to available products. For example, it is difficult to introduce the Idaho potato in Europe. McDonald’s uses essentially the same competitive strategy in every country: Be first in the market, and establish your brand as rapidly as possible by advertising very heavily. New restaurants are opened with a bang. So many people attended the opening of the Tokyo restaurant that the police closed the street vehicles. The strategy has helped McDonald’s develop a strong share in the fast food market, even though its US competitors and new local competitors likely enter the market. The advertising campaigns are based on local themes and reflect the different environments. In Japan, where burgers are snacks, McDonald’s competes against confectionaries and new â€Å"fast sushi† restaurants. Many of the charitable causes McDonald’s supports abroad have been recommended by the local restaurants. McDonald’s have been willing to relinquish the most control to its Far Eastern operations, where many restaurants are joint ventures with local entrepreneurs, owning 50% or more of the restaurant. European and South American restaurants are generally company-operated or franchised (although there are many facilities- joint venture-in France). Like the U. S. Franchises, restaurants abroad are allowed to experiment with their menus. In Japan, Hamburgers are smaller because they are considered a snack. The Quarter Pounder did not make much sense to people on a metric system, so it is called a Double Burger. Some of the German restaurants serve beer; some French restaurants serve wine. Some of the eastern restaurants offer oriental noodles. But these new items must not disrupt existing operations. Despite success, McDonald’s faces tough competitors such as Burger King, Wendy’s, and Kentucky Fried Chicken, and now also Pizza Hut. Fast food in reheat able containers is now also sold in super markets, delicatessens and convenience stores, and even gas stations. McDonald’s has done very well, with a great percentage of profits coming now from international operations. Aiming to be the world’s best quick service restaurant, McDonald’s opened first store in Pakistan in September 1998. Since then they have opened seventeen new stores throughout Pakistan. Today millions of Pakistanis place their trust in McDonald’s everyday to provide them with food of a very high standard as well as good service. In the past five years, the response to McDonalds coming to Pakistan has been overwhelming. Today Lakson Group of Companies has taken over McDonalds Corporation, USA and a local partner making it a 100% owned and operated Pakistani company. McDonalds located in Pakistan are currently employing about 1,000 Pakistanis and each store is managed by Pakistani managers. They have also contributed in other ways than food service. McDonalds has investment of over Rs. 300crore in the country and payment of taxes and duties amounting to more than Rs. 100crore. McDonald’s is operating, presently in 6 cities of Pakistan Karachi, Hyderabad, Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi and Islamabad, in future, very soon planning to expand in many cities in Pakistan. Instructions †¢ Read the case carefully (you may not understand it first time so read again and again) †¢ It’s better to take out prints and highlight the important information †¢ Read and understand the question carefully. †¢ After understanding question, read the case again and find the important information which is relevant †¢ Your answer should not exceed 300 words †¢ To count your words select the paragraph, then in tools menu select word count †¢ Irrelevant, extra material and long answers (more than 300 words) will be awarded zero †¢ Copied material from any source will be graded zero Question What opportunities and threats did McDonald’s face? How did it handle them?

Research and Development of Anti-Retroviral Drugs Essay

‘Discuss the reasons why the research and development of anti-retroviral drugs (ARVs) has impacted differently on people suffering from HIV/AIDS in developed and developing world’ HIV/AIDS still does not have a know cure, but has a treatment that slows down the affects of HIV/AIDS which is called ARV (anti-retroviral drug) The ARV drug is a very â€Å"exclusive† drug because as it is very expensive, around $400 a month if not more depending on which stage you are in, and that is a huge dilemma because many people cannot afford to pay that amount of money so they are not able to receive the treatment. If people in the first world countries cannot receive the drug, how do people in the third world receive the drug? In third world countries the drugs are given to them for free, but on the 47% gets the full treatment. The drugs are given to them by of the drug company itself of other companies that buy the ARVs from the company and send it to the place where it is needed, for example Africa. Africa is the location where the most HIV/AIDS cases are, and is also the one getting the least amount of treatment. The reason for this is because the ARV drug company wants to get their money back for all the research they put in, so giving the ARVs for free would become a great loss economically for them. The first aspect of this issue is the social part. Infrastructure is a big problem because as buildings coast a lot to construct they are not able to put up many, and you must also have trained people able to work there, which are hard to find in Africa. There are very few amount of places where you can go get tested but they have a limited amount of treatments and supplies. This is a huge problem because if people go to get better they have to wait or not get better at all due to the lack of resources. I would solve this issue by having not many small structures but several big structures so the supplies have a greater chance to arrive and more money is used wiser and more efficiently. Another social aspect of this problem is the education. In Africa the education is something that not everyon e gets, so they are not aware about how they get the disease, how they can prevent it or what are  the affects. A reason for why in Africa they do not receive the education is because there are a very few amount of teachers, and the teachers that they have may also be contaminated and are not able to execute their job correctly. HIV/AIDS affects everyone in their community because the disease spreads fast in their case (the people in Africa). This is due to their sexual behavior. Their culture does not have monogamy or a custom of only one sexual partner, but they have many different sexual partners, and that is why HIV/AIDS spreads so quickly in Africa. They also do not use protection because it is not available to most people and so chances are higher to get HIV/AIDS. Another cultural aspect is that there is a lot of prejudice against testing. Many people do not want to get tested for HIV/AIDS because one, they are scared the test might come back positive, second if it does result positive how will they tell their family/friends and thirdly how will they get the treatment they need to get. If the people get tested and do want to not tell anyone, because of various reasons, and as a result the problem amplifies and does not get solved. Another problem for the cultural aspect is get the people to take responsibility and try to change. Of coarse it is easier to ignore the problem and pretend it is not there, but that would not be helping the matter, it would be making it worse. How to solve these problems would be, in my opinion, have protection available to them, encourage testing, reassure the people that there will be a treatment for them, make them understand the severity of this issue and that if we do not take action it may get a lot worse, have session/groups for them to talk about their worries, experience ect. However before doing this we must solve the bigger problem, how do we give them the treatment for free. Another aspect of the issue is the ethical/moral part. The richer countries to some extent have an obligation to help the poorer countries, but the third world countries should not relay or take advantage because also the richer countries have their own problems to solve. For insists America is going though a very tough crisis but at the same time they are helping the less fortunate get better. The poorer countries should also take action and do something to help themselves, because they should be putting the money where it really needs to go to, the people. This leads us to another aspect of the issue, the political portion. Politics have caused a lot of mayhems in the world because they sometimes do not have they  priorities sorted out. For example in Africa instead of investing their money in this issue of HIV/AIDS and the treatments, they have decided to invest their money on weapons and in their natural recourses such as oil. It is very hard to run a third world country but it should not be an excuse. To solve these concerns although it is a difficult task but one way to solve them, in my opinion, is to have people from the first world talk and discuss about what they can do together (with the people of the third world) instead of just have the first world do everything on their own. The last aspect of this issue is the economic part. Africa is already a poor continent, having a poor economy is not helping either. They do not have enough money to circulate and this stops Africa growing, having sick people also stops the economy from growing because it is another matter they have to face. Child labor increases due to the fact that the adults are sick and are unable to work and the poor people have no way in getting better because there aren’t enough doctors. In conclusion a way to resolve the problem in the distribution of the ARVs is to have several multi-national pharmaceutical companies sponsor the ARVs, so other independent companies do not have to buy the drug and then distribute them, but by sponsoring the drug, the ARV drug company directly gives the drug to the third world countries without loosing it’s money. The multi-national pharmaceutical companies get advertisement and so they also gaining not loosing their money. As you can see this is a win, win situation. The main issue here is that the ARV drug company does not want to loose the money that they put in research so they make the drug excessively high-priced because to produce the drug is a coast next to nothing. Once the people receive the treatment, they should help educate not only the affected people but also the people that haven’t been affected yet. I believe by doing this, the transmission of the HIV/AIDS with decrease significantly and things will start to get better. I do believe that this problem is solvable.

Securing the Cloud Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Securing the Cloud - Essay Example Cloud computing provides for dynamically scalable and virtualized sources on the internet for online business applications which utilize software and data resources which are stored in the servers. Cloud Computing has also been defined as a revolutionary development of certain existing computing technologies and approaches into a form that is capable of separating the application and database from the infrastructure and mechanisms that are employed to deliver them. Cloud computing augments the cooperation, suppleness, size, accessibility and also offers significant cost reduction with the use of optimized and competent computing techniques, (Armbrust, and Griffith, et al., 2009). Cloud computing is basically the use of group of services, data sources and technical applications, all of which can be swiftly rearranged, reconditioned, implemented and also decommissioned with the help of an allocation model. In order to increase the scope of the services offered, the resources are set away from the infrastructure that is employed to deliver the results. For example, for a particular service to be based upon cloud computing technology, the internet can be utilized for transport and the browser as an accessibility tool – which states that the sources are at all the times shared in a multi-tenant surroundings exterior to the â€Å"boundary.† The users, who are serviced through cloud computing services, do not possess any kind of infrastructure, the user only pays for the resources they utilize and therefore avoid the capital costs by renting the infrastructure from a third part owner. The infrastructure behind the cloud computing is composed of efficient services through the use of virtual data centers that are based upon virtualization technologies, (Armbrust, and Griffith, et al., 2009). The cloud computing services can be

Summarize project procurement management and the processes to purchase Research Paper

Summarize project procurement management and the processes to purchase products or services needed for the project - Research Paper Example Solicitation planning deals with documentation of solicitation procedure (which is explained in the following selection). This part also includes some portions of procurement planning if they have been modified since inception (project procurement management, 1996). This process involves obtaining bids, quotes and offers from the sellers and sifting out the potential ones. It costs almost nothing to the performing organization as all the work is done by the selling parties (project procurement management, 1996). Source selection involves the analysis of quotes and bids obtained through solicitation procedure. This process is very straight forward where cost cutting is the primary selection criteria. Quotes are normally sorted into technical and commercial categories. Multiple quotes are considered for analyzing complex goods and services (project procurement management, 1996). It includes analyzing seller’s performance to see if it meets the contractual requirements criterion. For larger procurement orders, this involves managing interface between various providers. This sort of integration and coordination occurs at various levels and involves multiple sellers and products (goods/services) (project procurement management, 1996). It is the last step in the process and involves both product verification (checking if the whole working procedure was performed satisfactorily) and administrative closure (Updating the final result and keeping that data and documents in archives for future use). Contract terms and conditions usually govern the contract close-out. Termination of contract before its expiration is a special feature of contract close-out (project procurement management, 1996). Generic-families is just a synonym for classifying the procurements. It is very beneficial to categorize procurements. It reduces the complexity of various procured goods and services and makes it easier to identify objects against their event timings.

Portfolio management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Portfolio management - Essay Example Categorisation involves grouping potential components in to categories in order to facilitate further decision making. Usually, categories link their components with a common set of strategic goals. In this first step of implementing, it is important to establish what is going to be managed and as such, it is necessary to have an overview   of the extent and variety of potential and available work   and how it maps in to the organisations overall strategy. It is important at this stage to have to be aware of the extent and size of your mandate. This is the stage where one decides the terms, scope and defines the portfolio as well as gaining agreement on the basic portfolio model (Reilly & Brown, 2012). This is where on defines information such as: departments that are going to be covered, the category of work included for example whether the portfolio includes operations or projects, the categorization scheme which aids in balancing the portfolio in areas of importance to allow o ptimization of the overall allocation of resources.   For example, categories may include work that supports the business or grows the business. Work can also be categorised as high, medium or low risk. It is important that for every categorisation defined, some guidelines are set for how work should be balanced. Make sure that projects that are chosen are aligned to the goals and strategies of the organisation and also have the highest value. As such, understand the models that the organisation or department wants to employ.

A Key Role of Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A Key Role of Culture - Essay Example The following sections examine the importance of national culture in the business context.How People See Themselves: In some countries people are viewed as basically honest and trust worthy where as in others as suspicion and distrust. This may result from the way people see themselves. They assume others are like them; they set certain schemas about different people. For example, it took Mc Donald’s a year to realize that Hindus in India does not eat beef, this hamper their sales initially until they get shifted to lamb meatEthical Decision Making: Society continues to be apprehensive about the impact of ethics on decision making. The increased globalization of today's business suggests that more emphasis should be given to the potential impact of culture on ethical decisions. Understanding of cross-cultural ethical differences is quite important in today’s world because the ethical standards are variable in different cultures.Individualism versus Collectivism: Individ ualism refers to people regarding themselves as individual like USA, Canada, Britain etc, while collectivism refers to people regarding themselves as a part of a group like Japan, China, Israel etc. The differences between the two reflect in many ways, such as in hiring practice. In countries where individualism is important, job applicants are evaluated on the basis of personal, educational and professional achievement where as in group oriented societies applicants are evaluated on the basis of trustworthiness, loyalty.

From financial crisis to global recovery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

From financial crisis to global recovery - Essay Example Despite the global economic turmoil, the global FDI inflows rose significantly by 17 percent in 2011 in most of the economies to $ 1.5 trillion. The FDI flows increased in major economic groupings such as developing economies, transition economies and developed economies. Developing and transition economies recorded $ 755 Billion FDI inflows that were driven mainly by robust investments (Lapavitsas, 2012). FDI flows in Europe increased by 18 percent while the flows in the United States declined by 8 percent. Ireland experienced the largest FDI flows due to movements in debt and equity financial markets. The increase in FDI flows in Europe was mainly driven by cross-border corporate restructuring, mergers and acquisitions, and stabilization of the economies (Ramamurti & Hashai, 2011). However, this trend was not even in all European countries since Greece and Germany experienced a decline while countries like France saw an increase in FDI flows. Developing counties accounted for most of the global FDI flows in the first half of 2011 (Shambaugh, 2012). The FDI inflows in developing countries were at $ 684 billion. The FDI flows in transition economies rose by 6 percent in 2011 to reach $ 92 billion. ... The Sub-Saharan African region witnessed $ 37 FDI inflows in 2011 (Shambaugh, 2012). The FDI outflows from Africa were 50 percent lower in 2011 and amounted to $ 3.5 billion and mainly came from Egypt and Libya. FDI outflows from the United States reached $ 397 billion in 2011 due to appreciation of Japanese Yen since Japan was the second largest investor in the US (Shambaugh, 2012). From the above graph of global FDI flows, it is evident that the recent financial crisis negatively affected the global FDI flows. The global FDIs flows are currently on the increasing trend (Breitfeld, 2010). US economy FDI flows and balance of payments The global financial crisis of 2007-2009 led to the decline of the US trade deficit due to slowdown in imports. The US exports increased by 16 percent from 2010 to $ 1,497 billion in 2011 due to increasing economic growth in the economy. The imports also increased by the same percentage during the same period to $ 2,236 billion (Richardson, 2011). Though the two increased at the same percentage, the net effect was an increase in the trade deficit by 15 percent or $ 93 billion. In 2009, the recession led to an 18 percent in US merchandise exports and 26 percent decline in imports (Richardson, 2011). The figures however reversed in 2010 when exports in merchandise increased by 21 percent while the imports increased by 23 percent. In 2011, the trade deficit in goods was $ 738 billion on the BOP but was still lower than the previous peak of $ 836 billion in 2006. The deficit on the current account which includes the trade plus investment income and any unilateral transfers grew from $ 442 billion in 2010 to $ 466 billion in 2011 thus leading to an increase in the current account deficit by $ 24 billion. The

Why and how according to the Buddha should unenlightened beings try to Essay

Why and how according to the Buddha should unenlightened beings try to combat greed, hatred and delusion - Essay Example The fourth noble truth is the result of learning and practicing, which is the stage in which one becomes enlightened. The greed, hatred and delusion fall under the second noble truth. They are aspects of the causation of suffering. This paper purposes to discuss how and why the unenlightened should strive to deal with these three poisons of humanity, as perceived in Buddhism. Greed, hatred and delusion in Buddhism have commonly been referred to as the three poisons or the three fires. Other scholars of Buddhism have referred to them as the three unwholesome roots. Webster (2005 p 98) likens the three of them with evil desire. The reason for their being referred to as such is because of their nature to cause human beings to have a desire to happiness through the wrong motive. A close look at these metaphorical references to these three aspects reveals that they can be very dangerous if not dealt with from a deterministic perspective. They can induce afflictive emotions and thoughts. Buddhism teaches that the three are a byproduct of ignorance. By referring to them as a byproduct of ignorance, the teachings of Buddha point to the fact that there is a means of combating them. This way will be by applying the teachings of Buddha and practicing them so that the person who harbored them can become intelligent, or realize the fourth noble truth. Going by the fa ct that these three aspects are a result of ignorance, it is reasonable that the person experiencing them follows the recommendations of Buddha’s teachings so that they can become knowledgeable. This is to mean that the essence of combating greed, hatred and delusion is to become intelligent. This will be advantageous to the persuerer because they will become intelligent, and will have cured the disease of suffering. The Buddhist hypothesis behind greed, hatred and

The Intersection of Nature and Culture Essay Example for Free

The Intersection of Nature and Culture Essay Semiotics is a discipline which stems from the work and theories of American logician C. S. Peirce and the French linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. The idiom originates from the Greek word seemeiootikee, which denotes the study of signs, what they represent and signify, and how human beings act, interact and think in their universe. This branch of learning and understanding can be best described as a system of many communication theories and techniques which can be viewed as pieces of a puzzle. When these fragments are connected and pieced together, they make visible, the intricate design of human interaction and interpersonal communication. Semiotics lies intermediary between philosophy and philology and is nothing less than an objectification, or self-expression, or interpretation and the formation and comprehension of meaning. This area of study is a combination between scientific discipline and a world-view. Semiotics is an enormously broad approach to understanding such matters as meaning, cognition, culture, behavior, even life itself. At the heart of this discipline lies the notion of sign. A sign, according to Charles S. Peirce, widely acknowledged to be one of the seminal thinkers about semiotics, is something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity. It is the study of signs and symbols as elements of communicative behavior and the analysis of systems of communication. These signs take the form of words, images, sounds, acts or objects, but have no genuine meaning and become signs only when we invest them with meaning- nothing is a sign unless it is interpreted and brings about some form of meaning. Understanding semiology assists in the true understanding of ones self, others, and how we view the world around us. Inherently, humans are reactors. Because it is human nature to act, or react toward people, items, and instances on the basis of preconceived meanings that have been assigned, it is beneficial to understand that each sign or symbol will have a different meaning to each individual it is presented to. Because of communication filters and barriers (which can also be signs and symbols) no message is ever received the exact way it is sent. (See Appendix A)  Similarly, every sign encountered can be decoded and interpreted differently depending on preconceived notions, culture and personal experience. A signifier may induce many different interpretations of the signified (See Appendix B and D). This theory of signs and symbolism is divided into branches including pragmatics, semantics, and syntactics. Pragmatics is the branch of semiotics which deals with the causal and other relations between words, expressions, or symbols and their users. It can be an analysis of language in terms of the situational context within which utterances are made, including the knowledge and beliefs of the speaker and the relation between speaker and listener. Semantics is the study of the relationship between words and meanings. The field of semantics has three fundamental concerns: the relations of words to the objects denoted by them, the relations of words to the interpreters of them, and, in symbolic logic, the formal relations of signs to one another semantics is concerned with such issues as meaning and truth, meaning and thought, and the relation between signs and what they mean. Syntactics is the branch of semiotics dealing with the formal properties of language and systems of symbols. Innis proposes that, fundamentally these areas of thought deal with meanings and messages in all their forms and in all their contexts. There are three ways in which the sign can stand for its object: as icon, index or symbol. An icon is a sign that stands for an object by resembling it, not merely visually, but by any means. An icon makes a connection by similitude. Included in this category of sign are obvious examples like pictures, maps and diagrams and some not so obvious ones like algebraic expressions and metaphors. Indexes refer to their objects, not by virtue of any similarity relation, but by an actual causal link between the sign and its object: smoke is an index of fire. The relation between the sign and its object is substantial in that the sign and object have something in common; that is, the object affects the sign. It is physically connected to the object. Symbols refer to their objects by virtue of a law, rule or convention. Words, propositions and texts are obvious examples in that no similarity or causal link is suggested in the relation between, for example,  the word horse and the object to which it refers. In this category especially the potential arbitrary character of signs comes to the foreground. If symbols need bear no similarity or causal link to their object, then the signs can be considered by the sign user in unlimited ways, independent of any physical relationship to the sign user. The convention between recognizing a sign and the meaning which is provoked is affected by perception and experience. What appears to be a complex ideology is really very simple. Semiotics is everywhere, in every part of daily life. Humans recognize patterns of information and organize them to generate meaning. The sign is the signifier, and what speaks to us is the signified. We see a sign, internalize it, and create meaning. The Semantic Triangle, (Appendix E) shows the indirect relationship between symbols and their referents. Some signs are culturally universal and convey similar meaning in individuals (Appendix F). Some signs act as instructions or directions, and guide or restrict behaviors. For instance, if a sign with a cigarette encompassed by a red circle and a bar through the middle is on display in a business it is understood that there is no smoking on the premises. This image has predetermined meaning. Some signs act as reminders. An image in of a young child in a magazine may serve as a sign for an aging mother and the signified may be a sense of sadness as her children have grown and moved on. The perception of meaning and the ability making sense out of the information that is being transmitted by these signs is an essential element of human communication. The study and application of semiotics is the frame work for representing meaning. Reality is encoded with signs and symbols and life is but to decode and find meaning. We seem to be a species driven by a desire to make meaning: above all, we are surely homo-significans meaning-makers within which signs are meaningful units taking the form of words, images, sounds, acts or objects. Such things have no intrinsic meaning and become signs only when we invest them with meaning. And it is this meaning-making which is at the heart of the concerns of semiotics. The fact that humans can consume and interpret signs which are arbitrary and have no tangible existence in their immediate experience is what makes thought possible and is distinctly human. Ideas can be brought to mind and manipulated without being directly experienced. Meanings can be expressed in various ways, through a variety of sign systems: language, music, gesture and by many other vehicles. The meaning that is found within these signs creates the psychological and emotional environment we live in. Signs can also communicate ideological or connotative meaning, and perpetuate the dominant values of society. Aristotle claimed that a thing either is or it isnt. Semiotics is the arbitrator of this existence and because things can be decoded and deciphered differently by each individual, there is much grey area between the is and the isnt. By being aware of the way we use and interpret signs and symbols, and understanding the effects of these things on communication and interaction we are increasing and recognizing cognitive complexity so as to better approximate the halftones of this symbolically mediated real world. The meanings of signs and symbols are mediated by our experience and understanding of the world can never be the same for each person. Thomas Sebeok proposes that semiotics lies at the intersection of nature and culture. It is human nature to see and interpret signs but many of the signs we see are culturally adopted. However, we create our world of meaning by interpreting signs as we interact with objects in our environment and by personal experience. Having an understanding of Semiotics and its branches can help one to better understand their own psyche, as interpreting and finding meaning has much to do with self-disclosure. It also brings an understanding of others into the framework. The concept of semiotics and the ability to comprehend the notions can become a fortunate thing and be advantageous to the ability to communicate interpersonally, connect on a deeper level, and interact with other people and the world around References Barthes, Elements of Semiology (1967); A. A. Berger, Signs in Contemporary Culture: An Introduction to Semiotics (1988). Buchler, J. (Ed.). (1955). Philosophical Writings of Peirce. New York: Dover Innis, R. (Ed.). Semiotics: An Introductory Anthology. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.1983 Sebeok, T. Contributions to the Doctrine of Signs.Lisse: Peter de Ridder Press.1976. Unknown, Steps towards Evolutionary Semiotics. Semiotica 132, 3/4 (317-342).2000

A Memorable Term Essay Example for Free

A Memorable Term Essay In Mr. Rodriguezs Spanish 1-2 class, we have learned so many new things and have had the amazing opportunity to gain more fluency in another language. Some of the goals we had in the beginning of the term were to learn the appropriate level of Spanish, for example more knowledge of verbs, and how to say basic conversations and greetings. We were expected to have learned everything we were taught, and the basic part of the Spanish language. Mr. Macfarland was our Spanish teacher, and his techniques were that we did our homework in homework packets, and we would sing our vocabulary, which benefited us and helped us memorize it in an easier way. When we took test, quizzes and answered questions aloud, he could judge if we were learning or not by the answers we would give, or the grades we would receive. The family project we did in Mr. Macfarlands class was definitely the most memorable and enjoyable assignment we did. Throughout my freshman year, I didn’t do any other project that was like the family project we did in his class, and that is what made it so enjoyable. It was fun to go through old pictures, and be able to sort of introduce you’re family to your class. I did well in my Spanish class, receiving high grades on most assignments. Some of the difficulties I experienced were doing homework, because that was the only class I had homework in everyday and also book work, because it was hard to understand sometimes. I learned many new interesting things; I learned how to have a conversation in Spanish, also verbs in Spanish. Throughout this term I have improved greatly. I have gained a lot more knowledge, because in the beginning of the term the only thing I could say was hello. As for my achievements, I am so proud that I received an A in my class, because that was highly beyond my expectations. I would grade my effort about a B-, because there were a lot of times I would slack off and not do homework and my performance about a B because I sometimes talked during that class but paid attention and got serious when it was necessary. Learning Spanish can benefit me in my future because I will be able to slightly comprehend others when they are speaking Spanish, which is very important because many people speak Spanish in San Diego. Also, I will continue learning Spanish for my sophomore year. I did not have issues out of school that affect my classroom experience. Next year I would like to improve my effort, and if I continue taking Spanish in college it could help my transcript from having learned a second language. To reach my goals in the near future, I will continue taking languages because I feel it is something I need to succeed and something I enjoy doing. During this Spanish class, I have had so many amazing experiences it is beyond belief. I will never forget how comical and odd Mr. Mac was. I will also never forget how he made us sing our vocabulary because I have never been able to have fun while learning the meaning of words. Overall, I have made many memories in this Spanish 1-2 class that I will never forget.

Abortion and Human Rights | An Analysis

Abortion and Human Rights | An Analysis What is Abortion? The word ‘abortion’ comes from the Latin word ‘aboriri’ meaning ‘to fail to be born’. Abortion can be defined as the premature expulsion of a foetus from a womb (termination of pregnancy). In matters of ethics abortion usually refers to the intentional destruction of a foetus in the womb. Why do women have abortions? Find out that the foetus is disabled or deformed. Mother is underage and would not be able to look after the baby. The foetus is carrying a hereditary (genetic) illness. Mother got pregnant by mistake and it is used as a form of contraception. The mother will die if she continues her pregnancy. The mother is underage (16) and faces physical harm if she goes full term (as not developed well enough). The mother has been raped and become pregnant. It is used to cover up an affair. In some cultures, where sons have a higher economic value women can sometimes decide to abort if the foetus/embryo is female. Women in the workplace and career minded. The Legal Position of abortion in the UK In the UK abortion became illegal in the nineteenth century when the penalty for having an abortion was life imprisonment. Women trying to escape the unwanted pregnancy were forced to use unreliable and dangerous methods, including poisonous drugs, knitting needles, blows to the abdomen etc. If a woman had money, she was discreetly taken to a clinic for an illegal abortion. For those without money the only option was ‘back street’ clinics where untrained people performed the operation. Knitting needles were routinely used for this ‘operation’, but there was rarely pain relief. Poor hygiene and (sometimes) banned drugs were another feature of back street abortions. Many women haemorrhaged (very heavy bleeding-often life threatening) and some bled to death rather than go to hospital where their symptoms would be recognised. Many people were appalled by the number of women suffering and dying as a result of illegal (‘back street’) abortions. Due to pressure from the public, an abortion Reform Bill was introduced. This became LAW in 1967 and took effect in 1968. The Abortion Act of 1967 (Revised 1990) stated that: Abortion is legal if two doctors independently agree that one or more of four reasons for it exist: The mother’s life is at risk if the pregnancy continues. The mother’s mental or physical well-being is at risk. Scans or tests show the foetus is badly or physically disabled, or has a deformity, meaning it is unlikely to live at birth. There is risk of harm to existing children. The main time limit was lowered from 28 weeks, to 24 weeks in 1990 (Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act). However, the law allows an abortion at any stage of the pregnancy if the doctors agree that continuing the pregnancy would involve risk to the life of the mother or if there is a substantial risk if the child were born that it would be seriously handicapped. The biological father has no rights and cannot, in law, stop an abortion. (In 1987 an Oxford University Student lost his attempt in the courts to prevent his girlfriend aborting the child they had conceived). Most abortions in Britain are performed under the part of the Abortion Act which allows abortion if the pregnancy involves a risk to the physical or mental health of the mother. Many doctors involved in abortion argue that if a woman is determined not to have a child, to refuse her an abortion poses a possible threat to her mental health. It was the rape by British soldiers of a young girl in 1938, which justified Dr Aleck Bourne carrying out an illegal abortion in order to safeguard her mental health. At trial he was acquitted. The precedent established grounds for abortion as an exception and eventually became the basis on the 1967 Abortion Act. How are abortions performed? Vacuum Aspiration: (Suction abortion) Under general anaesthetic neck of womb (cervix) is dilated (opened) by probes. Suction then used to remove contents of uterus. Larger pieces of foetal tissue (usually the head) are crushed and pulled out with forceps. Dilation and Curettage (D C): Scraping instrument (curette) is used and contents of the womb are scraped out. Dilation and Evacuation (D E): Instead of a curette, small forceps are used to crush the contents and pull it out in bits. Prostaglandin’s (induced premature labour): This type of abortion is used in very late abortions and is rare in the UK. Hormones called prostaglandins are injected to bring on labour, which may last for 8 to 22 hours. A poison may be added to the womb to kill the foetus before delivery. RU486 pill will induce an abortion if taken in the first ten weeks of pregnancy. Why is abortion so controversial? Abortion is now commonplace and in many countries tens of millions of abortions take place every year. Although abortion is legal, its morality is still disputed. Religious organisations, such as the RC Church campaign against the availability whilst many women’s right groups campaign for greater access. The key ethical dimension in the abortion debate is whether there should be an absolutist prohibition of abortion on the basis of divine law, natural law or human rights or whether there are situations in which it should be made available. There are two central issues in relation to abortion: Whether the foetus is a person or potential person Whether the foetus has rights, and, if so, how these are to balanced against the rights of the mother. 1. When do humans become persons and become part of the moral community? The status of human life between conception and birth is central to the abortion debate. Whilst some form of life is clearly present at conception, whether that form of life should get the full protection of the law as a ‘person’ is disputed. Not all-human tissue is a person as not all living cells are persons. Living cells such as cancer cells for example are not persons. If things like bacteria or plants are considered for example, very few people would argue that they should be protected simply because they are alive. In terms of abortion, if the foetus/embryo is to be classified as a ‘person’, then abortion may be considered as the equivalent to a form of murder. Opponents of abortion argue that to kill a foetus is to murder a human person. Pope Pius IX in 1869 declared that a foetus is a human person from conception and therefore abortion is murder. This claim is supported by the fact that all necessary genetic material is present at conception and the foetus continues development from conception until born as a human being. Critics of this position argue that a fertilised egg is not a person. In ‘A defence of abortion’ (1971) Judith Jarvis Thompson accepts that there’s a continuous development but suggests that there is a point at which it is not a human being. Let’s consider when the foetus could be classed as ‘human’: Conception: In effect this is the point in which life begins and this is the argument given by opponents of abortion who say that this is the point at which a pre-embryo should be considered as a person. Others disagree with this, as the chromosomes do not develop until the third day and half of all fertilised eggs do not attach themselves to the wall of the womb, therefore cannot become babies. Physical sign: Some say that the foetus should be considered human when there is a physical sign, but what? From the 22nd day the heart beats and by day 42 the foetus is recognisably a human baby. Some argue that the foetus is human when the brain has developed activity, implying that the brain has some form of consciousness, which is crucial for making human beings what they are. Others argue that when the foetus has developed organs it should be considered human, but what organs and at what stage of development? Consciousness may be suggested as a definition of personhood as it cannot be applied to all living tissues, as it applies to sensory experiences and the ability to feel pleasure and pain etc. The only problem with this is that consciousness would include many animals and most people would argue that an animal is not a person in the same sense as humans are. The presence of rationality and our ability to develop complex language are distinctive features of ‘personhood’. Perhaps self-consciousness or self-awareness defines personhood? This includes a sense of our past and our future. However, very young babies are not self-aware in this sense, and most would argue that killing babies is killing human persons. Viability: some say that a foetus should be considered a person when ‘viable’ (can survive independently of mother). Currently a foetus is seen as ‘viable’ at 24/25 weeks. There are two objections to this: Many people have tried to ‘draw a line’ at a particular point in which a foetus is to considered viable and say that before this point a foetus is a bundle of tissue. The problem with this is that there is no easy way of drawing that line. The age at which the foetus can survive outside the womb is constantly reducing as medical technology progresses, therefore what is viable now may not be in five years. It is now possible to keep a 21-week foetus alive in an incubator and with intensive care, yet abortion is allowed at up to 24 weeks. One could say that until the main organs are formed the foetus is not a person, but which organs are essential and at what stage of the development of the organs? Many people are dependent upon medical technology to stay alive, such as dialysis. We do not consider these people not to be ‘viable’; we consider them to be persons, despite their medical conditions. Shouldn’t the same be applied to the foetus? Ensoulment: ‘Ensoulment’ means having a soul attached to something. This is a very different suggestion as to when the foetus/embryo becomes human and is based mainly on religious ideas. It is argued that the most important aspect of being human is having a soul; therefore a foetus/embryo becomes human at the point when the soul is attached. Augustine maintained that a soul was implanted at 46 days, although he condemned abortion at any stage. Aquinas maintained that the souls of girls were implanted at 90 days and boys at 40 days. In the 17th Century however, the RC Church stated that ensoulment took place at conception, therefore the fertilised egg is a human person. Birth: Before the foetus is born it is part of the mother’s body and after this it has certain independence and does not have to rely on its natural mother. Mary Anne Warren in 1991 argued that birth marks the point of true moral status. (Singers, ‘A companion to Ethics’) she sates ‘birth, rather than some earlier point, marks the beginning of true moral status’. She argues that if a foetus is to be considered a person then so should sperm. Does this mean that we need to protect the rights of sperm? She states that birth provided a clear boundary. Legislation in many countries allows abortion in exceptional circumstances up to birth but regards the deliberate killing of the baby after birth as murder. Warren’s argument is vulnerable as a foetus of 34 weeks is quite clearly viable and if aborted is likely to live outside the womb and may actually have to be left to die. Is a foetus that is capable of surviving outside the womb entitled to moral rights? The potential to become a person: It could be argued that the foetus is a potential person, as has the capability of becoming human and thus should be treated as one because of this. Many philosophers would argue against this. Potentiality does not necessarily imply that full legal status should be awarded on the basis of what it has the potential to be. A potential victory is not the same as an actual victory, having the potential to pass exams is not the same as actually passing them and a potential person is not equal to an actual person. The definition of personhood remains unresolved, as it is an agreement over the point of which a potential human being becomes a full human being. I could not find any recent statistics relating to the number of abortions at different stages in the UK and on what grounds. However, the following tables refer to abortions in England and Wales (1996) and are taken from Wilcockson’s ‘Issues of Life and Death’. Wilcockson’s source for this was ‘Office for National Monitor AB 97/4 (July 1997)’ Table 1: Abortions in England and Wales, 1996 Weeks of pregnancy Number of abortions Under 9 weeks 69,926 9-12 weeks 85,083 13-16 weeks 14,779 17-20 weeks 5,266 21-24 weeks 2,078 24 weeks and over 92 Unknown 1 Total 177,225 The above table indicates that most abortions in England and Wales take place within the first 9-12 weeks of pregnancy. Table 2: Number of abortions in England and Wales for each of the statutory grounds, 1996. A: Risk to mother’s life 138 B: To prevent grave permanent injury to mother 2,471 C: Risk to mother’s physical or mental health 171, 175 D: Risk to existing (born) children’s health 12,227 E: Substantial risk of serious disability of child 1,943 F: In emergency – to save mother’s life 3 G: In emergency – to prevent grave permanent injury to mother 0 Total (Doctors sometimes cite more than one category for reasons for abortion) 177,225 The above table indicates that most abortions are carried out under the ‘physical or mental’ health part of the act. The argument over when ‘life’ begins is ongoing and probably will be for a long time. Medical advances have made abortion easier and can also save the life of the unborn earlier. The debate is likely to continue and be hotly debate. The question you should perhaps ask yourself is when do you think life begins? When do you think a foetus/embryo can be considered a ‘person’ and therefore have rights? The table below may help you answer this question, although it must be stressed that this is only a short summary. At conception: Embryo starts growing from day one. This is when fertilization happens. The fertilized egg does not attach itself to the wall of the womb until day twelve (50% of fertilized eggs will not attach). At 1 Month (0.5 cm): Heart pumping since 18th day. The beginnings of eyes, spinal cord and nerves, lungs, stomach, intestines, liver and kidneys. At 2 Months (2.5-3.5 cm): Arms and legs become distinct and tiny fingers and toes appear. All internal organs of an adult, at various stages of development, are present. The first bone cells begin to be formed. Brain waves can be detected from about the sixth week. At 3 Months (6-8 cm): Development continues. The mother may feel the foetus kicking as it flexes its muscles. The heartbeat can be detected. The foetus now looks clearly like a human baby. At 4 Months (12-18 cm): The head has distinct human features and may have hair. The skin is pink, and the bones are closing to form joints. At 5 Months(25-30 cm): Developing rapidly and very active. At 6 Months (28-34cm): Eyes may now open. All systems are formed and are just growing in size. At 7-9 Months (36-56cm): Grows in size and fat is deposited to help survival at birth. Does the foetus have rights, and, if so, how are these balanced against the rights of the mother. If the foetus/embryo is seen as human at a certain stage it then has rights. If the foetus or embryo is regarded as a person, how then does one balance its rights against the right of the mother? A philosophy professor from Kansas, Don Marquis argued that killing in general is wrong because it deprives an individual of a future, which contains value. Most abortions, therefore, are immoral since they deprive the foetus of a future containing value. The foetus then has the right to life. Marquis argues that since it is wrong to kill rational and morally significant persons in principle it would be permissible to kill infants. Do we then allow abortion and the murder of infants because they are not rational? The feminist position began from the perspective of women’s rights. Mary Anne Warren put forward the case for granting women the ‘right’ to have an abortion arguing that the absence in the past of safe legal abortion led to undesirable consequences. (‘Back street’ abortion). Warren goes on to say that abortion must be permissible to guarantee a woman’s human rights. The World Health Organisation (WHO) backs this statement up with their statistics showing that 200 000 women are killed every year by unsafe abortions. To be forced to bear a child brings with it the hardships of possibly giving up work, therefore income, education, freedom etc. Prohibitation of abortion infringes these rights. Warren does say that killing is wrong, but to deny an abortion would deny a woman’s rights. Beverley Harrison in an article ‘Our right to choose’ argues forcefully for the rights of the mother. She maintains that since the woman carries the embryo/foetus and has to go through the pain of childbirth and has to care for and support the child then it is the woman’s decision, which should be paramount. Harrison stated that: ‘The well-being of the woman and the value of her life plan should always be recognised as of intrinsic value’ (Page 152, ‘The Puzzle of Ethics’ Vardy Grosch) A philosophy professor Judith Jarvis Thomson argued that even if we grant that foetuses have a fundamental right to life, in many cases the rights of the mother override the rights of the foetus. Accordingly abortions should be allowed in rape, life-threatening pregnancies and contraception failure. If a foetus was given equal rights then court cases would result and a mother could be forced to have an unwanted child. A court could even force a woman to go through a dangerous childbirth as her life would be considered to be of no more valuable than that of the foetus. What about Christianity? The Bible: There is not one clear message about abortion found in the Bible. In Exodus 20: 18 it is stated ‘Do not kill’ which is a quotation used by many Christians in opposition of abortion. This passage may be seen as only applying to a ‘person’ and the issue of when the embryo/foetus becomes a person crops up again. In response to this a Christian may argue that the Bible teaches that a foetus/embryo is human as it is stated ‘Before I formed you in the womb I knew you’ (Jeremiah 1:5) and ‘You created every part of me; you put me together in my mother’s womb†¦.. When I was growing there in secret, you knew that I was there, you saw me before I was born’. (Psalm 139:13 15). This does seem to imply that someone is human before birth. We are told in Exodus 21:22-25 that if a person injures a pregnant woman, causing miscarriage, compensation must be paid. This suggests that the life of the ‘unborn’ has both significance and value. However at the same time in Exodus 21:22-25 we are also told that if the mother dies then a ‘life for life’ policy applies. This suggests that the unborn does not have the same significance and value as the mother. The birth and role of Jesus is said to have been foretold, therefore his life was mapped out before birth. In opposition to this however are passages which suggest that the foetus need not be considered human ‘a stillborn child comes without meaning, it departs in darkness’ (Ecclesiastes 6:3-4). This COULD be taken to imply that a foetus/embryo lacks humanity and we are also told that a man does not become a human being until he receives ‘breath of life’ (Genesis 2:7) Christian Tradition: Generally most churches are in favour of preserving human life but there are many different teachings on the status of the foetus. Many Christians accept abortion in order to save the life of the mother, or in the case of a severe deformity, but others argue that a person born with a deformity can still give and receive love as a human being and that the detection of such defects should not be grounds for an abortion. The RC Church maintains that it is intrinsically evil and totally condemns it. Abortion goes against Natural Law, as it is not fulfilling the purpose of life ‘to live, to reproduce’ and also goes against the word of God. (See also Ensoulment). Pope Pius IX in 1869 decreed that anyone performing or allowing an abortion was wrong. The Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) states that, ‘Human life must be respected and protected absolutely from the moment of conception. From the first moment of his existence a human being must be recognised as having the rights of a person – among which is the inviolable right of every innocent being to life.’ (Issues of life and death, Michael Wilcockson, page 36) The Roman Catholic Church, and indeed most Christians would argue that since man was created in God’s image and likeness, so then is the foetus/embryo. God alone is lord of life and death and humans do not have the right to take away life. The ‘sanctity of life’ argument may be given here. This is to say that life is sacred and that human life is valuable in itself. The term ‘sanctity of life’ means ‘a life set aside’ and Christians would say that God creates each life specially and uniquely. Human life is therefore intrinsically (i.e. in itself) worthwhile and we have a duty to preserve this life. There is of course in Natural Law and the Christian position the principle of double effect. Double effect is a theory used to justify the termination of a foetus/embryo if the intention of doctors is to save the life of a mother. (E.g. hysterectomy) In the case of an ectopic pregnancy, where the fertilised egg attaches itself to the fallopian tube the double effect justifies the removal of the fallopian tube as if it is not removed the mother will die. In this case if the pregnancy continues the mother and foetus will die and the double effect theory justifies the removal of the fallopian tube, because the intention is to save the mothers life even though the effect of doing so leads to the death of the foetus/embryo. Even pro-life groups, such as SPUC would allow for DDE. What do ethical theories say on this matter? Virtue Ethics: Would abortion be allowed in virtue theory? Virtue Ethics concentrates on what a person is, rather than does. The aim of virtue ethics is a good life of well being (eudaimonia) It is an ethic of aspiration to be a better person and looks to those who have set a good example. Aristotle classifies the virtues and we must try to find the ‘Golden Mean’. Would abortion be classified as an ‘extreme’ of behaviour? Well as you will remember Robert Louden argued that virtue ethics is of little practical use to someone faced with a moral dilemma as virtue ethics fails to address dilemmas, which arise in applied ethics, such as abortion. He gave the example of a woman who discovers that her baby will be born with severe disabilities. He asks how are we to know what a good person would do? How are we to choose between compassion and bravery? Having an abortion could be classed as ‘cowardice’, ‘rashness’ etc. and one could say that Mother Teresa as a Christian would not have an abortion, but what about in certain circumstances? What if virtues clash? Since Virtue Ethics focuses on the person, rather than actions or consequences of actions can we really say whether an abortion would be acceptable? For Aristotle you cannot explain ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ simply in terms of rules, but rather you can show how a virtuous person can be trusted and do the right thing in a variety of situations, each of which may be unique and cannot therefore be covered by a way of a rule. Relativist/teleological ethical theories and abortion: a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Situationism (Notes from page 53, ‘Issues of Life and death’ (Wilcockson) Since the 1960s many Christian theologians have argued that Jesus’ teaching was based on giving people their own freedom to act responsibly based on the principle of generous love or ‘agape’. Joseph Fletchers influential book ‘Situation Ethics’ (1966) coined this term and set out a Christian calculus, which decides each case on its own merits. This theory is absolutist in the agape part but this is the only absolute rule. Fletcher claimed that in any given situation the ‘right’ thing to do was that which love required. Whilst this provides an alternative Christian ethic which is consistent with the Gospel representation of Jesus traditional Christian thinkers have rejected it. (E.g. Pope Pius XII-see Relativism booklet for more information). Fletcher outlined a case in 1962 where an inmate of a mental hospital raped an unmarried, schizophrenic girl. Her father’s request for an abortion was denied because the only moral and legal grounds for abortion would have been if her life were at grave risk. Fletcher finds it shocking that this kind of rigid legalism could deny compassionate treatment. The situationist answer cannot really be predicted because each case is unique but in the above case Fletcher argued that her mental health is paramount and furthermore ‘no unwanted and unintended baby should ever be born’. Fletcher however, is far from clear about why and to what extent the embryo or foetus should be included in the calculus: (Taken from p.53, ‘Issues of life and death’ (Wilcockson) They (situationists) would in all likelihood favor abortion for the sake of the patient’s physical and mental health, not only if it were needed to save her life. It is even likely they would favor abortion for the sake of the victim’s self respect or reputation or happiness or simply on the ground that no unwanted and unintended baby should ever be born. They would, one hopes, reason that it is not killing because there is no person or human life in an embryo at an early stage of pregnancy (Aristotle and St Thomas Aquinas held that opinion-see Ensoulment), or even if it were killing, it would not be murder because it is self-defense against, in this case, not one but two aggressors. First there is the rapist, who being insane was morally and legally innocent, and then there is the ‘innocent’ embryo, which is continuing the ravisher’s original aggression! Even self-defense legalism would have allowed the girl to kill her attacker, no matter that he was innocent in the forum of conscience because of his madness. The embryo is not more innocent, no less an aggressor or unwelcome invader! Is not the most loving thing possible (the right thing) in this case a responsible decision to terminate the pregnancy? (Situation Ethics (1996) p.39) Many people use the situation ethics principle to judge whether or not someone should have an abortion. Because situations differ in so many respects, then so should our response. Situation Ethics as put forward by Fletcher encouraged people to use the ‘agape’ principle – what would be the most ‘loving’ thing to do in the circumstances? For this theory the question of whether abortion is morally acceptable cannot be answered, as it would depend upon each situation and specific circumstances of a particular mother. This system allows for flexibility but the problem is, how can we be certain that our response will, in the long run, turn out to be the most loving? (Many people who have abortions regret their decision in later life.) Also if there are two ‘people’ involved, whose interest’s conflict, how should we decide whom to ‘love’? If an end result serves ‘agape’ best then it is right. b) Utilitarianism: A short summary: This theory can be summed up by the phrase, ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest number’. At a first glance it may seem that abortion is straightforward for a utilitarian. If the mother’s happiness would be greater is she had an abortion, then abortion would be the right course of action. However, it is more complicated than this, as other factors need to be taken into account. The foetus needs to be taken into account as if the foetus is to be considered ‘human’ then its happiness should also be taken into consideration. This does not mean that abortion becomes wrong. However, it does suggest that abortion would be ‘right’ in certain circumstances, such as if the mothers life is in danger. (May be more happiness if mother survived, rather than if both the mother and foetus died.) In addition, other family members perhaps need to be taken into consideration for the ‘greatest happiness for the greatest number’. If other family members did not want the mother to go ahead with the abortion, or indeed if the father wanted the child, then abortion here would not be the ‘greatest happiness for the greatest number’. In the case of pregnancy as a result of rape for example, the following would need to be considered alongside the ‘greatest happiness’ principle: Trauma for mother and existing family Trauma for any child of rape in learning of their violent origins. Absolutist/deontological ethical theories and abortion: Natural Law: This has already been covered in the ‘Christianity’ section of this booklet and the potential to become a person and Ensoulment should also be taken into consideration. When the Christian examines natural law it is clear that nature’s design is that women are naturally equipped to have children. It is thus, natural for intercourse to lead to conception and for women to be pregnant and bear children (Final cause of sex=procreation.) Natural Law theory would claim that abortion is wrong, as the purpose of the body is to reproduce. The RC Church has opposed abortion for a considerable amount of time based on this tradition. There is however, the principle of double effect, which could be applied here. This principle could be seen as ‘relativist’, although the theory of Natural Law is essentially an absolutist theory. The doctrine of double effect consists of fou

Climate Change: A Greenland Perspective Essay -- Global Warming Envir

Climate Change: A Greenland Perspective Works Cited Not Included Climate change is the alteration of temperature and precipitation patterns over an extended period of time. Across the globe, scientists are identifying climate change in relation to the greenhouse gas emissions and solar cycles. While most researchers believe that the increase of atmospheric CO2 is effecting global warming, others are endorsing the concerns of another Ice Age, which is likely to occur due to orbital variations of the Earth. In his article, Abrupt Climate Change, Richard Alley titles one section, ?Chilling Warmth,?15 which perfectly describes the angst of many people who foresee a deadly warming trend, and also the paradox of global warming causing another ?Little Ice Age.? These competing discourses are extremely pertinent to the country of Greenland, which is at the forefront of the climatic change debate. Greenland and other Arctic countries continue to be at the head of the discussion on climate change, whether due to melting ice caps, or advancing glaciers. Our understanding of climate change across the world has been possible due to Greenland?s ice cores; proxy records, such as O18 dating, reveal atmospheric air temperatures at which the sheets of ice were formed.16 Oxygen in the ice cores can also reconstruct the history of precipitation. Greenland remains a critical story teller of cooling and warming trends, since the 1990s, when scientists first started to extract from the gigantic sheets of ice.17 Scientists who view increased CO2 emissions as directly related to a warming climate are radically concerned for the outcomes of warming oceans, rising sea levels, and higher precipitation levels. For example, in an article for Nationa... ...ric air temperature, but in contrast to Amos? belief that Arctic temperatures in Greenland have decreased by 1.29 degrees Celsius, since 1985, Peter Spotts of The Christian Science Monitor, documents a seven degrees Fahrenheit increase in Alaska, western Canada, and Russia over a fifty year period.33 From the research that I have conducted, I have realized how integral Greenland is in the dialogue on global warming and abrupt cooling; furthermore, I recognize that climate change needs to be of global concern, not only to scientists, but to the government and all citizens; every regional climate change in the Northern Hemisphere directly influences temperature and precipitation in the Southern Hemisphere. We are all connected, and it is imperative that humans intervene and become aware of how their environmental choices may affect biodiversity around the world.

All-Kinds-Of-Fur :: essays research papers

Motion Picture Diaries:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This document reading that I chose to write my short paper assignment on is a collection of diary entries from three different young people from three distinctly different backrounds. Yet, this primary source shows that there is one common link between the three of them and that is their love of movies and the early motion pictures that seemed to captivate Americans from every walk of life. All three of these individuals obviously have had their lives impacted by the movie industry to such a level that feel the need to write about it in their diaries where their personal information is shared. But, in order to understand this we must look at our own lives and that pivotal moment when something new and exciting entered our life and we just thought that whatever it was was greater than sliced bread. The only difference is that the people and especially the young adults of this era were experiencing something unlike anyone had ever seen before and as a result it had enormous impacts. Movie stars were born and their first fans appeared in the warm glow of the mid afternoon picture. People of this era worshipped their movie stars. They dressed like them, walked like them, talked like them, started to smoke like they did; all attempts to immitate their favorite star in ultimate hopes of being like them one day. All three of these individuals have their story to tell about how they tried to live out part of a movie they saw in their real lives, whether it was through a passionate kiss or a runaway with a forbidden lover. These stories also make it evident to the reader the kind of impact these motion pictures had on people of many different ages. It was a young girl's fantasy being portrayed on a screen and therefore, she knew without doubt that her dreams would come true just as they had for the woman on screen. Through these writings the reader can see these people attempting to live out these movie fantasies in real life and sometimes with success. These entries are first-hand accounts of the effects of movies on this generation and offers a bit of insight as to why we view movies and movie stars the way we do today. As it turns out, it has always been that way.

Harry S. Truman’s Early Political Career & Its effects Essay

Preface This Research paper is meant for the academicians, students and those concerned with the international politics.   The complicated international politics is well understood by the prevailing American politics which has great bearings.   This report gives a brief insight of the Truman presidency and its impact. An Abstract   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This report delves into the early political career of 33rd President of the USA.   His presidency is analyzed briefly concerning New Deal, World War and the Cold War.   A brief conclusion is appended at the end. Rationale of the Study The motivation of this study is to draw a fair conclusion about Truman’s early political career and the effect that his policies had on the America people up to the end of World War II. Truman, Harry S. (1884-1972): His Early Political Career With the demise of President Franklin D. Roosevelt on April 12, 1945, Vice President Harry S. Truman took over the Oval Office.   He knew he faced a difficult set of challenges.   However Truman’s most frightening task perhaps was following his predecessor, Roosevelt, who had restructured American governance, the Democratic Party, and the office of the presidency during his twelve years in office. Truman’s appointees were mostly undistinguished and contributed little to his presidency.   Ã‚  He inherited Roosevelt’s staff of presidential advisers.   By the mid-1940s, the President’s staff included administrative assistants, appointments and press secretaries, and counsels to the President.   It also included the Bureau of the Budget, formerly a part of the Treasury Department but, owing to the Executive Reorganization Act of 1939, now housed in the Executive Office of the President.   The New Deal and the war years focused the increasingly important and powerful role that a President’s staff played in policy-making. During the Truman years, the President’s staff continued to grow in size.   On the domestic side, the most important addition was the Council of Economic Advisers (CEA). The Employment Act of 1946 created the CEA to help the President make economic policy; liberal Democrats in Congress particularly wanted the CEA to be a preserve for progressives and liberal New Dealers.   Truman instead staffed the CEA with a mix of conservatives and liberals,   Truman treated the CEA as a set of presidential advisers, rather than as an independent body, and made sure that it remained under his control. Depression, New Deal, & World War Truman took office just as World War II entered its final stages.   His main task, then, was to outline to Americans his vision for the country’s future.   Ã‚  Two related issues — the future of New Deal liberalism and the re-conversion of the American economy from a war-time to a peace-time footing topped his agenda. With the war’s end, Truman needed to restructure the nation’s financial system towards consumer production and spell out the government’s future role in the economy. Truman presented to Congress a detailed twenty-one point message that nevertheless attempted to set the post-war political and economic agenda.   Truman called for new public works programs, legislation guaranteeing â€Å"full employment,† a higher minimum wage, extension of the Fair Employment Practices Committee, a larger Social Security System, and a national health insurance system. Overall, these requests showed an interest in maintaining and building upon the New Deal.   On reconversion, Truman pushed for quick demobilization of the military — a political necessity as the troops and their families clamored for a quick return to civilian life and the temporary extension of governmental economic controls. Truman’s program went nowhere.   Republicans and conservative southern Democrats in Congress were dead-set against many of the other proposed reforms, including an extension of FEPC, national health insurance, and a higher minimum wage.   The public, in addition, divided over the prospects of an enlarged social welfare state and continued government intervention in the economy; liberal Democrats and key constituents of the Democratic Party supported them, but many other Americans did not. Reconversion was rejected and stalled and Truman received the blame.   As a matter of fact, rapid reconversion would have been difficult for any President, because of the variety and challenge of its objectives: increased production of consumer goods, full employment, higher wages, lower prices, and peace between labor unions and industrial management. Paradoxically, a key Democratic constituency namely labor gave Truman the most headaches.   In August 1945, Truman stated that he would maintain price controls however that unions could pursue higher wages.   Ã‚  Beginning in late 1945 and lasting throughout 1946, a wave of strikes hit the steel, coal, auto, and railroad industries, and devastating key sectors of the American economy and stifling production of certain consumer goods. To end the strikes and restore industrial peace, he recommended compulsory mediation and arbitration, warned that the U.S. government would draft striking railroad workers, and even took a union — the United Mine Workers to court.   However by taking such a hard line, Truman had damaged his relationship with an important element of the party coalition. Truman’s other major economic problem was the time it took to convert from military to civilian production.   Consumer goods in high demand were slow to appear on the nation’s shelves and in its showrooms, frustrating Americans who desperately wanted to purchase items they had forsaken during the war. Price controls proved a principally difficult problem.   Ã‚  As controls began to disappear in mid-1946, prices shot upward; the rise in the price of meat which doubled over a two-week period in the summer, received the most attention.   In response, the government reinstituted price controls, angering meat producers who then withheld meat from the market. The combination of high prices and shortage infuriated consumers and voters, who often criticized the President.   By September of 1946, Truman’s popularity rating had sunk to 32 percent.   Many Americans, including the President’s supposed Democratic allies, wondered if Truman could successfully lead the nation. In his State of the Union address, he identified the need for legislation to solve the persistent problems of labor unrest and strikes. He offered no solution of his own, nevertheless, proposing only a temporary commission to study the issue and a declaration that he would sign no bill attacking organized labor. Republicans in Congress took up Truman’s challenge and passed the Taft-Hartley bill, which limited the power of labor unions by curbing union participation in politics, by approving state â€Å"right to work† laws, and by allowing the President to block strikes through a judicially mandated eighty day â€Å"cooling-off† period.   Truman vetoed Taft-Hartley in June 1947, declaring that it â€Å"would take fundamental rights away from our working people.† Congress superseded the veto; Truman, in turn, declared to accomplish the law’s provisions and he even applied several of them including the court injunction to bring an end to some strikes.  Ã‚   However, in opposing Taft-Hartley, Truman mustered the support of organized labor. Inflation continued to be a problem in 1947 and 1948 too, although prices did not rise as sharply as they had in 1946.   Food prices, especially, continued to rise.     Truman suggested a return to price controls, although with the knowledge that congressional Republicans would reject such a measure and which they did. Finally, in 1947, Truman reaffirmed his support for liberal initiatives like housing for the poor and federal assistance for education. He vetoed Republican tax bills perceived as favoring the rich and rejected a Republican effort to raise tariffs on imported wool, a measure he deemed isolationist.   These positions, combined with his veto of Taft-Hartley and his sympathy toward price controls, situated Truman as the chief defender of the New Deal against Republican encroachments. Truman also took a stand in 1947 on civil rights.   Ã‚  His failed 1945 proposal to extend FEPC was, partially, an effort to woo black voters so important to the Democratic Party.   In the summer of 1947, Truman became the first President to address the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), to whom he declared his forthright support of African-American civil rights.   Speaking to a crowd of 10,000, Truman declared that â€Å"The only limit to an American’s achievement should be his ability, his industry, and his character.† Truman however, proceeded warily on Civil rights front.   In early 1948, he sent his civil rights proposals to Congress, but did little to urge their passage.   He also announced that he would issue executive orders in the future to integrate the armed forces and to ban discrimination in the civil service.   Ã‚  By early 1948, therefore, his support for civil rights was more rhetorical than substantive.   However, as he followed this strategy with increasing skill throughout the year, Truman stood poised to win Democratic votes. In his 1948 State of the Union address, Truman again called for civil rights legislation, national health insurance, a housing program, and a higher minimum wage. On a cross-country train tour in early 1948 dubbed a â€Å"whistle stop† tour by Republican Senator Robert Taft.   Truman used a new extemporaneous speaking style.   Audiences warmed to this new public persona: the plain-spoken, hard-fighting Harry Truman from Missouri.   Still, most political observers and many Democrats thought Truman would not win re-election in 1948. Truman also embraced more fully the cause of black civil rights by issuing executive orders desegregating the military and outlawing discrimination in the civil service.   Ã‚  He won an upset victory that fall over his Republican opponent, Governor Thomas Dewey of New York. Fair Deal Propped up by his dramatic victory, Truman announced an agenda in early 1949, which he called the â€Å"Fair Deal.†   It was a collection of policies and programs much desired by liberals in the Democratic Party: economic controls, repeal of Taft-Hartley, an increase in the minimum wage, expansion of the Social Security program, a housing bill, national health insurance, development projects modeled on the New Deal’s Tennessee Valley Authority, liberalized immigration laws, and ambitious civil rights legislation for African-Americans. Conservatives in the Republican and Democratic parties had little use for Truman’s Fair Deal.   National health insurance and repeal of Taft-Hartley went nowhere in Congress.   Ã‚  Moreover Truman’s agricultural program, the â€Å"Brannan Plan,† designed to aid the family farmer by providing income support, had difficulties; it was replaced by a program that continued price supports.   Congress did approve parts of the Fair Deal; Truman won passage of a moderately effective public housing and slum-clearance bill in 1949, Noticeably, Truman had misjudged in reading his electoral victory as a mandate to enact a liberal political, social, and economic agenda. Just as important, Truman believed the â€Å"Fair Deal† as an opportunity to transform the Democratic Party into an alliance of urban dwellers, small farmers, labor, and African-Americans.   Absent from this proposed coalition were white conservative southern Democrats. In addition, public opinion polls showed that most Americans wanted Truman to protect the New Deal, not expand it.   Ã‚  Similarly, Truman misjudged congressional opposition to a larger social welfare state — opposition strengthened by the public’s lack of support for the Truman agenda.   Whatever enthusiasm remained for the Fair Deal was lost, after the summer of 1950, amidst preoccupations with the Korean War. Economic Growth At the same time as Truman fought for the Fair Deal in 1949, he also encountered a rather severe economic retardation.   Ã‚  Both unemployment and price increases rose during the first six months of that year, reinforcing fears that the nation’s post-war economic boom was over.   Truman’s economic policy sought to balance the federal budget through a combination of high taxes and limited spending; any budget surplus would be applied to the national debt.   As the economy slowed down, Truman in mid-1949 abandoned his hope for a balanced budget and gave some tax breaks to businesses. The economy responded by perking up in 1950. Frum states candidly: â€Å"No American president ever proposed worse economic policies than Harry Truman. The great post-war economic boom that began in 1945 appalled and disgusted Truman, and he exerted all his political power in an attempt to shut it down. Truman wanted to impose a permanent war economy on the United States† (p. 85). (1) Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan & The Cold War: An Analysis The Truman Doctrine was the drive for the change in United States foreign policy, from isolationist to internationalists; thus Americans were drawn into two wars of containment and into world affairs.   The Truman Doctrine led to a major change in U.S. foreign policy from its inception. The outcome of World War II inspired the U.S. to issue a proclamation that would stop Communist influence all over the world.   Nevertheless, zeal in that achievement sent American soldiers to die in Vietnam and Korea for an apparently pointless cause. A direct result from the Truman Doctrine was the Marshall Plan. This came about when Truman appointed General Marshall as Secretary of State. In that position, he observed â€Å"Europe’s economic plight.† Marshall proposed a plan that would offer aid to all nations â€Å"West of the Urals.† (p. 355) (2). The Truman Doctrine has impacted everyone in the U.S. and nearly every country in the world since its declaration in 1947.   Some critics castigate the Doctrine: â€Å"Critics blamed involvement in Korea and Vietnam on the Truman Doctrine. Without the Doctrine . . . the U.S. might have minded its own business.† (p. 571) (3). Moreover, in 1949 the Soviet Union dared to acquire a nuclear capability, and so the Cold War started because the West had to respond to this sudden threat.   On July 25, 1945, the day Truman recorded in his diary, â€Å"We have discovered the most terrible bomb in the history of the world,† adding, â€Å"It is certainly a good thing that Hitler’s crowd or Stalin’s did not discover the atomic bomb.†(4).  Ã‚   It seems that the Cold War developed in the mind of a skeptic Truman.   It has been argued that his dropping two nuclear bombs on Japan was to some extent motivated by a desire to intimidate Russia–as Cold War strategists often said, Russia respects nothing but power and force (5)(6). Conclusions Almost as soon as World War II ended the United States found itself entangled in a somewhat subtler and more complex Cold War with the Soviet Union.   This ideological conflict was an overwhelming influence in the formulation of American foreign and domestic policies for the next 45 years and redefined the America’s role in the world community.   American foreign policy that was founded upon George Washington’s warning to â€Å"beware foreign entanglements† soon found itself rebuilding Europe through the Marshall Plan, defending it under NATO, and eventually struggling to contain communism on a worldwide scale. Accusations of corruption troubled Truman since his earliest days in politics.  Ã‚   During his presidency, the corruption charges proliferated, in part because they were effective political weapons for Truman’s opponents. However these charges also resonated as some members of the administration did participate in ethically questionable, if not illegal, activities. End Notes Frum, David. What’s Right: The New Conservative Majority And The Remaking Of America, 1996, Basic Books. Truman, Margaret. Harry S. Truman, 1973, New York: William Morrow and Co., Inc., 344-372. McCullough, David. Truman, 1992, New York: Simon and Schuster, 550-575. Truman quoted in Robert H. Ferrell, Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman, 1980, New York: Harper and Row, 55-56. Williams, Appleman William. The Cold War Revisionist, 1967, The Nation, 13 November, 492-495. Lerner, Mitchell. Review of Dennis D. Wainstock, The Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb, 1997, H-PCAACA, H-Net Reviews.

The Tiger Who Would Be King

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Mr. Smith Honors English – Period 6 19 January 2013 Ambiguity and Irony in the Tiger Who Would Be King James Thurber weaves ambiguity and irony into â€Å"The Tiger Who Would Be King† and allows them to influence the readers understanding and perception of the characters, themes, and plots in various ways. For example, ambiguity, a lack of clarity, presents itself when the brash and volatile tiger arrogantly declares â€Å"I’ll be king of beasts by the time the moon rises† (312). This presents us with the central plot and conflict of the story as well as some insight into his character and personality.The fact that he declares war against Leo the Lion leaves us with some ambiguity as we do not know if he will triumph and only know that an epic battle lies in store. Another example of this is evident when the tiger rebelliously states â€Å"’We need a change,’ said the tiger. ‘The creatures are crying for a change. â₠¬â„¢Ã¢â‚¬  (312). The fact that his mate notes that the only crying she can hear is that of her cubs, leaves the reader with ambiguity as to why he really wants change. The reader must critically approach the text and derive the unclear meaning from his faulty decision and decide and discover what it really means.Ambiguity in this story as well as in all literature is what captivates readers and teaches them to critically analyze the text and takes reading to a whole new level. Dramatic, verbal and situational irony all appear in this story and provide it with a kind of humor that keeps readers entertained. For example: â€Å"The tigress listened but she could hear no crying, except that of her cubs† (312). This is an example of situational irony because readers expect there to be a serious problem, however the tigress’ observation proves that the conflict the tiger created may not actually be there.Situational irony occurred here because what happened is the opposite of what as expected. Another instance of irony in the story this time comes verbally when the lioness wakes Leo the Lion and tells him â€Å"The king is here to see you† (312). The fact that Leo is the king is what is so ironic about the statement. This instance of verbal irony in the story is what sets the wheels in motion and gets the blood boiling for the fight of the king of beasts. Irony in this story is used often and is supports the main ideas, plot, theme and characters and helps the story move along.

Principles of Assessment in Lifelong Learning

Principles of assessment in lifelong learning Task A part a The assessment process is a vital part to teaching in the lifelong learning sector. All assessment requires the collection and recording of evidence of student learning. There are many aspects to assessment which will begin from the point of the leaner completing their initial application form. The principles of assessment come under three different headings, Initial assessment, formative assessment and summative assessment. Each of the assessment criteria come with specific outcomes for the learner this will assure the learner is getting the best possible outcome to their learning.Looking at figure 6. 1 Gravells, A (pg112) assessment cycle as shown below The initial assessment will be the crucial part of the learning journey. This will provide the relevant information needed to decide the leaner’s starting point. It is the level from which the learner’s progress and also achievement can be calculated. As state d by Green, M. (2003) â€Å"Initial assessment needs to be done with learners rather than to them. It should be of benefit to learners and help them feel positive about themselves and their potential to learn. Initial assessment may start with establishing the learners, interests, aspirations; experience and motivation or it may be part of a â€Å"getting to know you† activity in induction. It allows you to look at the learning styles which are relevant to each learner. Whatever method you choose it needs to be flexible and should reflect the nature of the learner. From using a range of assessment methods it will enable you to summarize the learners starting point. Whichever method is chosen, it is important that initial assessment contains some form of skill/knowledge assessment which can be validated by the tutor.The initial assessment will allow the planning for any other services which may be required to assist the learner. It is essential that all interaction which take s place with the learner on the initial interview is recorded, this is done for the protection of the learner also the tutor can refer back to any conversation which has taken place. The recording of information will make sure the learner is on the correct course at the correct level, the learner actually wants to access the course. Planning for the assessment is basically you and your learner agreeing on which type and which methods of assessment are suitable.This will vary from learner to learner as they all have different needs and also very often different learning styles. Also included in the planning assessment is setting appropriate target dates setting with both the learner this could also involve other members of staff. Assessment activity is all about how to assess the activity and what methods could be used. For example if it is a student led assessment they could be completing the requested assignment or even gathering some form competent evidence. If tutor/assessor led this could be observation, questioning or even photographic evidence.After the three initial assessments have been completed it is then time to look at the assessment decision and feedback, this enables the tutor to make the decision on whether the learner has been successful or otherwise. This is the point in which the tutor/assessor is able to give constructive feedback to the learner stating if any further actions are required. Reviewing the progress means that any assessment plan can be review and altered at any one time to meet the learners required needs at the time, or upon completion of either the programme or the course.The review process enables you as the tutor to sit with your learner and give the opportunity you both time to discuss any relevant issues you may feel will aid in their learning. By reviewing the assessment activities which you use this will give you an opportunity to amend any if necessary. The formative assessment is the second strand of the assessment pr ocess. â€Å"formative assessments are ongoing practices that help both the teacher and student evaluate and reflect on how they are both doing, and what changes either or both might need to make to become a more effective teacher and learner. Larry Ferlazzo (no date) Assessment for learning is also known as formative assessment. Assessment for learning is the process of seeking and interpreting evidence in use by learners and their teachers to decide where the learners are in their learning, where they need to go, and how best to get there. Since the goal of formative assessment is to gain an understanding of what students know (and don't know) in order to make responsive changes in teaching and learning. Techniques such as teacher observation and classroom discussion have an important place alongside analysis of tests and homework.Much of what tutors and learners do in the classroom can be described as assessment for learning. (Black and Wiliam, 1998) says â€Å"Assessment for l earning can be defined as ‘all those activities undertaken by teachers and/or by their students, which provide information to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged’ Formative assessment should occur regularly throughout the instructional process and, According to the National Center for Fair and Open Testing (NCFOT) (1999), Careful documentation can allow formative assessments to be used for summative purposes.The manner in which summative assessments are reported helps determine whether they can be easily translated for formative purposes–especially by the student, teacher, and parent. (Ainsworth & Viegut, 2006) state â€Å"By varying the type of assessment you use over the course of the week, you can get a more accurate picture of what students know and understand, obtaining a â€Å"multiple-measure assessment ‘window' into student understanding† Some examples of a formative assessment could b e: * Asking questions * observations * self assessments * quizzes (sometimes) * learner record keepingThomas R. Guskey suggests â€Å"that for assessments to become an integral part of the instructional process, teachers need to change their approach in three important ways. They must â€Å"1) use assessments as sources of information for both students and teachers, 2) follow assessments with high-quality corrective instruction, and 3) give students second chances to demonstrate success† (2007). Assessment of learning is also known as summative assessment, assessments used to sum up a learners achievement. Summative assessment can be carried out as particular stages of the course or learning rogramme are completed, or at the end, whichever seems appropriate. Where achievement is recorded on an on-going basis, summative assessment may mean bringing all the evidence together, rather than carrying out an additional set of assessment activities. This means that all the requireme nts stipulated by the examining body are all collated and correct. Assignments to be marked and graded appropriately, making sure the work is that of the learners and no one else’s. . Examples of summative assessment can be a written examination. Reliability is essential as they are used numerically to classify learners and compare them to each other.Traditional unit tests (multiple choice, true/false and sort answer questions) are poor summative assessments as they rarely require the application of skills and concepts or the demonstration of understandings rather than a mere reporting of information. The best summative assessments often incorporate the essential question(s) that have focused the unit, requiring students to answer one or more of the essential questions drawing upon ideas from personal experience, from the texts studied, and from new text(s) encountered as a part of the assessment. Assessment methodsWithin my area of childcare/sexual health I use many varied t ypes of assessment. The assessment criteria I use are based on the level of the learner and the suitability to the specific unit within the assignment. By using various methods of assessment I get a clearer picture of what went well with both tutor and learner and what was not so good so improvements can be made. Use accurate assessment to effectively plan to ensure all groups of students are suitably challenged and supported. Use a variety of strategies (ASL) to ensure students know where they are and what they need to do to improve in relation to their target grades.These must include: * Skilful Questioning and other forms of oral feedback (relating to lesson objectives) which gauge and probe student understanding, as well as re-shaping of explanations and tasks. * Frequent written feedback (Marking), which follows Strengths, Attitude to learning, Level and Target (SALT) and where targets set are detailed enough that students can make progress. * Peer and/or self-assessment Photog raphic assessment Photographic assessments are used usually with another form of assessment, observation or verbal.Photographic assessment allows the learner to do practical activities and have a photographic record of their achievements these can then be placed either into a book or a file and annotated by the learner which will explain the type of activity which had taken place. If this is done on a regular basis with activities at different levels the learner can see the progress which has been made. If and when using photographic evidence it should always be signed and authenticated by both the learner and the tutor. Is it valid? Yes as the photographic evidence will show as long as the photograph is annotated, dated and signed by a tutor/teacher.If the evidence is not current i. e. the picture taken six months before the criteria may have changed so photographic evidence may not be required or be insufficient for the amount of work needing to be produced. As with positives ther e are also some negative points with this kind of assessment. * Some learners may not give permission to be photographed * It may mean learners are absent purposely to avoid taking part in the lesson. * You need to make sure all the equipment works and you have all your resources to hand. Verbal QuestioningThis is an excellent way to find out if the learner has understood the task which has been set for them. You can use the lesson objective in this case to keep referring back to. The questioning can be either informal or formal. You could state you are going to recap the lesson, stating you will be asking each learner a question at the end. This method is used quite a lot as it continually assess the learner knowledge. Giving the students positive feedback throughout telling them no answer is wrong getting them to expand on the answer they have just given.Demonstrations can be done with this method as you could demonstrate the subject at hand, asking questions continually and the s tudents responding accordingly. * The down side is often learners are worried they will give the wrong answer. * They may feel embarrassed taking in front of others Observation Observational assessment is the perfect way to observe the students as they work on a specific project. This promotes independent learning; gaining more than one view point also the learning is timed and controlled. This enables the teacher to roam around the classroom, occasionally offering guidance and encouragement as the students work.Whist walking around the classroom the teacher is able to take notes on how students are performing and also whether or not modifications need to be made to the assignment. The observation works well when the teacher wishes to monitor how students work together in groups or individually. The observational process is also a useful to monitor behavior within the session. This is turn enables the teacher to move the learner(s) if necessary. * Students may not participate in the session as they feel they don’t have the relevant information to give. May not get a true reflection of the outcome as some learners may come out with untruths. Portfolios Many aspects of the portfolio and the portfolio process provided assessment opportunities that contributed to improved work through feedback, conversations about content and quality, and other assessment relevant discussions. The collection also served to demonstrate progress and inform and support summative evaluations. The relationship between assessment and instruction requires re-examination so that information gathered from learner discussions can be used for instructional purposes.The disadvantages of this could be * Time consuming for staff marking them * Difficult to ensure reliability between staff * Can encourage cheating re ownership of work It is important that all learners being assessed by this means must have a shared understanding of the level expected of their work. It is good practice to show learners relevant examples and suggest a proposed format, including suggesting a physical size, as this will help your back! If the nature of the evidence needed from students is transparent, this can aid the marking and go towards reliability between staff.Also preparing a marking proforma for all staff should help. As portfolio building is usually time consuming, offer interim assessment opportunities so that learners can receive advice on whether the evidence they are assembling is appropriate. Consider assessing the portfolios as a team, with each giving comments on a feedback sheet which could also have positives on the portfolio as this aids feedback for learners. Self-Assessment/Peer Assessment Learners can only achieve a learning goal if they understand that goal, and can assess what they need to do to reach it.The ability to assess one’s own work is essential in acquiring that understanding. Peer assessment is also valuable because the interchange will be in a l anguage that learners themselves would use, also because learning is enhanced when leaners themselves tak on the roles of teachers and examiners of others. Self-assessment and peer assessment is used to log the progress. This can be done by mind mapping in different colours. First colour what they know, second colour some of the information you have imparted, third colour all the information and what their peers know.This could be done on several different occasions to assess the progress which has been made, also to identify any areas of improvement, show the strengths of the learner. Below is a chart which I use and can be altered to allow for differentiation and levelling. The peer assessment could be a quiz which they complete they exchange papers to mark each other’s. This can give a sense of ownership to the student. In conclusion I feel that assessment is a necessary part of the learning process for both learner and tutors alike. It enables tutors and educational estab lishments to keep up to date records of the progress of each learner.Ofsted or any other government expectorate will able to see regular progress, marking from the members of staff and also positive comments with identifiable areas of any improvement required. Task B The assessment process is an on-going process to which all learners should be involved in. One of the main objectives to assessment is to enable all learners to take part at their own level. The need for inclusivity is paramount when doing assessment to enable each learner to be assessed at their own level. If necessary other services may need to be involved i. English as an additional Language (EAL) this will need liaison with each subject leader and the co-ordinator for EAL. This will then look at the specific needs of the learner, ensure that assessment practice conforms with equality of opportunity, and monitor the performance of EAL and ethnic minority students, setting them relevant challenging targets, and finall y analyse and interpret the performance of EAL and ethnic minority students at the end of key stages. Whichever assessment method I have chosen it needs to address the intended curriculum outcomes and also the continuum of learning that is required to reach the outcomes.As I am assessing the learners they need to understand clearly what they are trying to learn, and what is expected of them. In turn they are given feedback I give them around the quality of their work and what in turn they can do to improve it. The advice they are given from me the tutor will go to making the necessary improvements. During this time they learners are fully involved in deciding what needs to be done next, and the relevant people who can give them help if required.